Everyone knows that if you want to learn how to do something, you should get advice from people who do it well, right?

In a 4-part study, researchers from Harvard University and the University of Virginia aimed to answer this question.

Their paper entitled “Tips From the Top: Do the Best Performers Really Give the Best Advice?” was recently published in the journal Psychological Science.

Part 1

In the first part of the study, around 1,000 participants (606 females; the average age of 35 years old) were asked to play Word Scramble. Participants were asked whether they thought there might be any link between how good someone was at the game and how good they’d be at helping others play it.

The answer?

Most people stated that someone’s ability to play the game would be an indicator of how good their advice was.

Part 2

In the second part of the study, 78 people (38 males; mean age of 36 years old) were chosen to be advisers to 2,000 more people who were tasked with playing the game. The advisers’ guidance varied, with some advisers saying people should look for short words, for example, or look for certain parts of words.

At the end of this part of the study, the researchers found that guidance did tend to improve people’s performance. However, they also found that the guidance that came from the best players was not actually any more beneficial to the new players compared to the guidance given from other advisers.

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Did you know?

The ability to read emotions in others and in oneself has proven through research to be the strongest driver of leadership and personal excellence.

A recent study even suggests people who are in tune with their colleagues’ emotions are more likely to bring home a bigger paycheck than their emotionally-stunted colleagues!

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Part 3

The third part of the study switched things up again. This time, 300 people (152 males; mean age of 34 years old) were given the guidance written by advisers in the previous part but were told not to implement them into the gameplay. Rather, they were asked to simply guess how effective the guidance would be.

It’s crucial to note that the players who were given the advice were told nothing about the performance of the people who gave it.

The results showed that the guidance provided by the most successful players was regarded as sounding better than the guidance provided by the rest—even though the previous part of the study (part 2) showed that this advice was not actually any more effective in practice.

Part 4

The fourth and final part of the study did not involve any gameplay. In this section, researchers analyzed the advice given by the more successful players to see why people rated it more highly. They found that the more successful performers made a higher number of suggestions than others.

“The best performers did not give better advice, but they did give more of it, and participants apparently mistook quantity for quality,” the study reads. “These studies suggest that performing and advising may often be unrelated skills and that in at least some domains, people may overvalue advice from top performers.”

Although advice from the best-performing advisors was no more beneficial than advice from other advisors, participants believed that it had been—and they believed this despite the fact that they were told nothing about their advisors’ performance. Why?

The best performers did not give better advice, but they did give more of it, and participants apparently mistook quantity for quality.

These studies suggest that performing and advising may often be unrelated skills and that in at least some domains, people may overvalue advice from top performers.

The post [STUDY] Do the Best Performers Give the Best Advice? first appeared on Humintell.

Emotions and feelings are often confused with one another, but how do they differ?

What are feelings?

Feelings refer to the perceptions of sensations that are felt in the body. There are many processes that take occur in our bodies that can create sensations. Our perceptions of those sensations constitute what we know of as feelings.

Because there are processes that are going on in our bodies all the time, we can perceive those sensations all the time.

It is important to note that there are large individual differences among people on how perceptive they are to those sensations. Some people are very perceptive whereas some people are not.

Feelings can be related to emotions. For example, we can have angry feelings and sad feelings. However, we can also feel cold, feel hot, feel tired, and feel hungry.

What are emotions?

Emotions are a special class of mental phenomenon where they are reactions to events that have special meaning to us.

Emotions are reactions to meaningful events and emotional reactions include cognitive and physiological changes. These changes occur in our thinking and perceptions as well as in our physiology. All of which help prime our bodies to act in a certain way.

Because these changes involve cognition and physiology, they also creation sensations in us that we can perceive. Since we’re perceiving these sensations all the time, we also have feelings when we’re emotional. In fact, we can have unique and strong feelings when we’re having an emotion. Thus, many people equate feelings with emotions.

In reality, feelings are one component of emotion (along with others) and feelings go on all the time. You can have non-emotional feelings and they generally are continuous readouts of our internal states. Emotions are specific reactions to certain events that include feelings.

Why do we have emotions?

Emotions help us react in some situations with minimal conscious awareness. They help us freeze or flee when there’s an immediate danger, to fight when there’s an obstacle to our goals, or to repel spoiled, rotten, or contaminated things, like spoiled milk, before we ingest them.

Thank god we don’t go through such time consuming, risk-benefit calculations for many life or death events and situations – those that have implications for our health or safety. Those with that system survived and remain here today; those without that system were selected out of existence by nature.

We’ve discussed how each of the basic emotions are triggered by a universal, underlying psychological theme. In the very same way, each of the basic emotions have a unique function, that is, each helps us do something fairly specific. All of these aid us ultimately in our survival. Thus, getting a handle on the function of each of the basic emotions gives us an idea of why we have each of these emotions in the first place, and what roles they played in getting us here.

Here’s a brief list of the functions of each of the seven basic emotions that are universally expressed:

For more on how emotions help achieve these functions, read this past blog post!

How many emotions are there?

One of the biggest misunderstandings about the 7 universal facial expressions of emotion is that people think that means we have only seven emotions. Nothing could be further from the truth.

Yes, facial expressions of anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise are universally recognized and expressed. But humans have many other types of emotions as well. These include pride, shame, guilt, embarrassment, triumph, worry, hate, love, jealousy – the list of emotions goes on and on.

This poses a dilemma. On one hand, decades of science have demonstrated that there’s a special category of emotions known as basic emotions. As we have discussed previously, different scholars classify different emotions into their list of what’s “basic.” We use universal, observable, nonverbal signals in the face as our criterion for classifying emotions as basic, which is why we believe there are 7 basic emotions. Other scholars have other approaches. Basic emotions are not necessarily better; they’re just different.

On the other hand, a quick search of emotion words will reveal that there are hundreds of emotion-related words in English. And this is true in all other languages as well. We can relate to all those emotions lists; they’re all important to our everyday social lives.

To learn how we can reconcile this dilemma, read this past blog post!

The post What’s the Difference Between Emotions and Feelings? first appeared on Humintell.

A longstanding debate about whether animals have emotions and feelings is being reshaped by new tools and concepts. Although animals can’t tell us how they feel, researchers like David Anderson, a biology professor at Caltech, believe that a connection exists between animal and human emotions.

In his book The Nature of the Beast: How Emotions Guide Us, Anderson describes research from his lab that suggests the brain circuits underlying human emotions have a lot in common with circuits found in mice and even fruit flies.

The Importance of Non-Human Emotions

Understanding whether non-human animals have emotions — and how they are formed if they do — could provide new insights into the mental health of humans, including understanding certain psychiatric disorders like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

But emotion is tricky to study.

There isn’t a formal, widely held definition of what an emotion is, and neuroscientists, biologists, psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists and philosophers all have different views on its definition.

Although you can’t ask animals what they’re feeling, researchers who study animal “emotion” in reality actually study human analogs of emotion.

What is an Emotion?

Dr. Matsumoto defines emotions as quick reactions to events that may impact our survival. They are unconscious, immediate, involuntary, automatic reactions to things that are important to us.

Most emotion scientists believe that emotions are triggered by how we evaluate events. These events include not only what happens around us, but also thoughts and feelings in our heads, because those thoughts and feelings can themselves trigger emotions.

This evaluation process is known as appraisal, and over the decades there have been tons of research that have led to many different appraisal theories of emotion. Although there are differences among them, these theories generally state that there are different emotions are triggered (or elicited) by different ways we appraise or evaluate events, and that different emotions are triggered by different appraisals.

Looking Past Emotions

Anderson says in order to study emotions in animals, scientists first need to set aside their own perceptions of what people typically think of as emotions, such as anger, fear, sadness or joy.

What lies beneath feelings, Anderson says, are brain states that produce certain behaviors. And that’s the part of emotion that scientists can study.

For example, Anderson’s lab has investigated fruit flies that become much more active when they see a moving shadow like the one cast by a flying predator.

In an article for NPR, Anderson states that sort of behavior is typical of a persistent brain state called defensive arousal. It’s present in both fruit flies and people, which is why Anderson believes studying fear in an insect or a mouse can reveal a lot about human emotions.

Anger and Aggression

Another human feeling that probably has its roots in animal emotion is anger.

There’s no way to know if animals have angry feelings, says Dayu Lin, a neuroscientist at New York University. But the sort of aggressive behavior associated with human anger can be found in fish, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Lin has studied the brain areas involved in aggression and one area of the brain appears to be critical. NPR states that in people, this region is near the bottom of the hypothalamus, just above the pituitary gland. And studies show that in mice and other animals, this clump of brain cells is part of a core aggression circuit.

In humans, anger is probably the most common emotion that we have that leads to feelings of regret later. Dr. Matsumoto doesn’t believe anger is inherently a “bad” emotion; getting angry can result in some good in our lives and in society. Anger, and all other basic emotions, exist for a reason.

In our evolutionary history, being angry (and disgusted and afraid and sad, etc.) was functional for us. That is, anger, as all other basic emotions, helped us deal with problems in our lives and in our environments in order to survive. In our evolutionary past, emotions like anger were important in order to deal with many life struggles. All our emotions allowed us to handle incredibly difficult events that required us to think with minimal conscious awareness.

Trauma, Fear and PTSD

Animal emotions are also helping scientists understand certain psychiatric disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

As stated in NPR, for a person with PTSD, even a minor event can produce a stress and fear response that lasts for hours, Ressler says. And there’s a parallel in animals.

A typical mouse will freeze when it hears a tone associated with a mild electric shock. But if the shocks stop coming, the animal soon learns to ignore the tone.

In both people and mice, trauma appears to alter a brain circuit involving the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. And in rodents, it’s possible to regulate that circuit.

“We now understand specific parts of the circuit that increase fear and other parts of the circuit that decrease fear,” or at least the animal version of that emotion, Ressler says.

The next step, he says, is to figure out how to tweak that circuit to reduce the fear response in people with PTSD.

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